Senin, 29 Oktober 2012

KEPARIWISATAAN

Vacation on Jogja’s Palace






That was my photo holiday when i came to Jogja’s Palace. The photo was take two years ago. I went to Jogja’s Palace with my friends used by pedicab. We can rent the pedicab with the price about Rp. 5.000 - Rp. 10.000 depend on driver on pedicab and distance between hotel until Jogja’s Palace.
To enter the Jogja’s Palace we must pay Rp. 5.000/ person, and if we bring camera we must pay Rp.1.000. At the first door we will got greeting by servant inside. In Jogja’s Palace we can saw many about history of  the palace. There are many photo of  family’s kingdom start from the first sultan until the last sultan who still take hold of the palace until now. Beside that, we can saw the instrument music of gamelan which usually used for the big judicial procedur like the picture above. If we want to come this place, remember the place opened from Sunday-Saturday at 10 am until 3 pm.

Selasa, 09 Oktober 2012

kepariwisataan




1. Menurut UU No.9 Bab I Pasal 1 tahun 1990 tentang kepariwisataan menyatakan bahwa :
Kepariwisataan adalah segala kegiatan dan urusan yang ada kaitannya dengan perencanaan, pengaturan, pelaksanaan dan pengawasan pariwisata baik yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah, pihak swasta dan masyarakat.

2. Menurut Oka A. Yoety dalam bukunya Pengantar Pariwisata (1990 : Hal 109) yang menyatakan bahwa dalam pengertian kepariwisataan terdapat berbagai faktor yang mau tidak mau harus ada dalam bahasan suatu definisi pariwisata. 
3. Menurut Soetomo (1994:25) yang di dasarkan pada ketentuan WATA (World Association of Travel Agent = Perhimpunan Agen Perjalanan Sedunia), wisata adalah perjalanan keliling selama lebih dari tiga hari, yang diselenggarakan oleh suatu kantor perjalanan di dalam kota dan acaranya antara lain melihat-lihat di berbagai tempat atau kota baik di dalam maupun di luar negeri.
4. Menurut A.J. Burkart dan S. Medik (1987)
Pariwisata adalah perpindahan orang untuk sementara dan dalam jangka waktu pendek ke tujuan- tujuan diluar tempat dimana mereka biasanya hlidup dan bekerja dan kegiatan-kegiatan mereka selama tinggal di tempat-tempat tujuan itu.

Berdasarkan definisi dari beberapa para ahli saya menyimpulkan bahwa Kepariwisataan adalah kegiatn yang berkaitan dengan liburan dan dapat menempuh jarak lebih dari puluhan kilometer.


Senin, 08 Oktober 2012

History of Journalism

Journalism Time Line

1608 First English reporter in  the colonies, Captain John Smith, leader of the Jamestown settlement, publishes his newsletter Newes from Virginia
1690 First American newspaper, Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick, is published in Boston
1721 The New England Courant, published by Ben Franklin’s older brother James, is first to offer readers literature in addition to news
1727 First local correspondents report news from nearby communities, in the New England Weekly Journal
1729 Ben Franklin makes the Pennsylvania Gazette the best newspaper in the colonies, with the largest circulation, most pages, highest income from advertising, and the most literary columns
1750 Fourteen weekly newspapers are read in the six most populated colonies
1768-1769 Patriot Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty spread news items about the British to newspapers through the “Journal of Occurrences”
1769 Printing presses are made in America by Isaac Doolittle of Connecticut
1776 The Boston paper the Massachusetts Spy supports the movement for independence and publishes an eyewitness account of the first battle of the American Revolution

Colonial newspapers reprint Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense, encouraging colonists to revolt against the British

Less than a month after its approval, more than 20 newspapers carry the full text of the Declaration of Independence, spreading word of the cause of freedom across the new United States
1783 First daily newspaper, the Pennsylvania Evening Post, appears
1791 First Amendment to the Constitution, protecting freedom of the press and other freedoms, is approved
1795 Reporters allowed in both the House of Representatives and the Senate
1800 Twenty-one newspapers are published in the new West, beyond the Appalachian Mountains
1800-1830 Quarterly, monthly, and weekly magazines begin to appear
1808 First Spanish-language paper, El Misisipí, published in New Orleans
1811 Niles’ Weekly Register, first news magazine, appears
1814 Congress says that at least two newspapers in each state and territory must print laws passed for the nation
1827 Reporters from three newspapers become the first Washington correspondents, beginning continuous coverage of the Congress to this day
1828 First Native American paper, the Cherokee Phoenix, appears, printed partly in English and partly in Cherokee
1830s Pigeons and the pony express carry news from distant points
1833 The New York Sun becomes the first “people’s” or “penny” paper, selling on the street for just one cent
1835 The New York Herald introduces new newspaper sections devoted to money, sports, society news, letters, and reviews and publishes “extras” or special editions to cover significant news
1841 Horace Greeley’s New York Tribune offers readers views on many issues
1851 The New York Times is founded
1840s Railroads and steamships carry news items quickly and are used to distribute newspapers
mid-1840s Telegraph used to convey news at a distance
1849 Groups of newspapers band together to support a news-gathering service that will supply foreign news by ship and telegraph; the group later becomes the Associated Press (AP)
1856 First African-American daily, the New Orleans Daily Creole, is published
1861-1865 Hundreds of photographers, including the well-known war photographer Mathew Brady, are issued passes to cover the Civil War

Reporters in the field develop the summary lead to make sure that the main point of their story gets through by telegraph

Papers begin to bulletin highlights of the war action as headlines
1870-1900 Population of the United States doubles; city population triples; number of daily newspapers quadruples

Editorial staff at big-city daily newspapers grows and becomes more specialized, with an emphasis on reporting

More women work at newspapers, as correspondents, editors, and writers

Telephones and typewriters change the way work is done in the newsroom

Cables linking the United States to England and parts of Asia make news gathering faster

Newspaper publishing becomes a major business in the United States
1870s-1880s New magazines treat readers to high-quality literature, humor, and discussion and debate of political issues
1880-1900 Bigger and faster presses are developed to print more copies of papers in less time in order to meet tighter deadlines and serve the growing number of readers

Photographs begin to appear in newspapers

Number of African-American papers increases
1890s Sensationalism, known as yellow journalism, is used to win papers more readers
1893 Color is used for comics and other parts of Sunday editions
1900-1925 Political cartoons offer commentary on the news in many newspapers
1907-1909 United Press Association and the International News Service compete with the Associated Press in gathering news from around the world
1917 Ethnic papers reach a peak with 1,323 foreign-language publications
1910-1914 Number of newspapers in the United States reaches a high, with 2,600 dailies and about 14,000 weeklies published
1920s Radio and movies begin to compete with newspapers and magazines for people’s time and attention

Many newspapers begin to include political columns
1930s Personalized or “gossip” columns appear for the first time in papers

Picture magazines such as Life become extremely popular and provide greater opportunities for photojournalists
1930s-1940s Newsreels shown at movie houses before or after the feature film offer a new view of the news
1950s People begin to turn to television for the news
1960s “Underground” and alternative papers and magazines rebel against and criticize established papers and the country’s political and social structure

Variety of newspapers serving the Latino community are founded
1960-1990 Investigative reporters uncover information about the activities of the government and other groups and offer interpretations of events and issues, such as organized crime, the Pentagon Papers, Watergate, and Iran-contra
1970s-1980s Computers begin to change the process of producing a newspaper
1980s Number of daily papers decreases because of increase in the price of newsprint and in supply costs, rising pay, loss of advertising to television, and general decline in advertising

Four press associations or news agencies—the Associated Press, United Press International, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse—provide more than 90 percent of all international news
1990 Newspaper groups own most of the daily papers in the United States, with Gannett, Knight-Ridder, Newhouse, New York Times, Dow Jones, and Thomson the five largest groups, in terms of number of dailies owned
1990s Reporters are able to file stories from around the world immediately using lap-top computers and modems or via satellite




FAQs about Journalism in the United States

What were colonial newspapers like?
Most colonial papers had four pages, measuring about 10 by 15 inches. They did not have headlines and contained no illustrations, except for the printer’s trademark (known as a colophon) and a few woodcuts that went along with advertisements. The paper used for colonial newspapers was made in England from rags.How were colonial newspapers printed?Until 1769 colonial papers were printed on printing presses imported from England. Each page was printed as follows. First, the type was set by hand and locked in a form. The bed of the press was rolled out, and the type was placed on it. Ink was applied to the type. The paper was moistened in a trough and placed over the type. Then the bed was rolled back under the press, and the platen or pressure plate was pressed against the type from above. When the platen was released, the bed was rolled out again, and the paper was removed and hung on a wire to dry. When it was dry, it was run through the press again, this time with the type for the reverse side of the page.How quickly could people get news during the Revolutionary War? Communications were not very advanced during this period. Much news traveled by word of mouth; that is, from one person to the next. News of the battles at Lexington and Concord that began the war, for example, did not reach the southern colony of Georgia until six weeks after the event.Where did Americans get paper for printing newspapers during the Revolutionary War?There were paper mills in the new United States, but they could not meet the demand for paper. Paper was made from linen and other cloth. George Washington, the American commander in chief, made a special plea to women to save cloth to be made into paper.What is freedom of the press?The First Amendment of the Constitution protects the freedom to share and spread ideas not only in newspapers, books, magazines but also on the radio and television. It protects information from being censored or restricted by the government before it is published or broadcast. There are some limits, though. Written or published statements that damage a person’s reputation or endanger the nation’s safety are not protected by freedom of the press.How did printing change in the 1800s?Improvements were made to the printing press so that parts moved automatically and both sides of the paper could be printed at the same time. Steam began to be used to power presses and made printing much faster. How much did newspapers cost before there were penny papers?Before penny papers, a few big city papers sold for about six cents a copy, but most papers were sold by subscription. Subscribers would pay $6-$10 for a year in advance. Only the wealthy could afford to get the paper. The average worker made less than $6-$10 a week, and most people could not afford to pay a lump sum in advance.How were photographs finally printed in newspapers? A process known as photoengraving was developed in the 1860s and 1870s. The dark and light parts of a photograph were separated, and points for each were laid out on a plate. Points for dark areas were placed closed together, and points for light areas were spaced out. The ink used in printing transferred each point to paper. The engraved reproduction of the photograph was called a halftone.What is sensationalism?Sensationalism is a way of attracting interest in something by appealing to the emotions or senses instead of to reason or the mind. News of violence and detailed accounts of people’s personal lives or private affairs are two examples of sensationalism in journalism.What are underground papers?The “underground” papers, published mostly in the 1960s, were unofficial papers produced by small, sometimes new groups with special interests. Most were critical of recognized papers and the accepted ideas and ways 
 of the times.







Indonesian Journalism

Ideally, western journalists would be impartial or having non-partisan position. They are reporting and presenting factual news without taking any sides.
While in Indonesia, journalists had gone through some stages. In the 50s-80s, they were politically involved, aligned with certain political parties. They were called activist journalist. In 80s-90s, they were more into business and economic system, and news media was seen as business organization. In 2000s, activist journalists are back, and they are adopting western standard.

New Order

The Indonesian Press has been very closely linked with the political situation and power at the time, ever since the nation’s declaration of independence through the radio by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta in 1945, who became the nation’s first President and Vice-President respectively. The following year the nation’s journalistic agency, PWI, was born. The PWI’s main goal is to address the problem of political bias and provide norms and guidance for professional journalistic practices. However, in the 1950’s most newspaper could be directly or indirectly classified as mouthpiece to various political and ideological parties. To counter this, President Sukarno then abandoned the liberal western democracy and adopted the guided democracy system and demanded PWI and the press to act under government direction and to promote Indonesian ‘values’ and the Pancasila ideology. Various government regulations were issued to eliminate opposition and to instruct journalists to support Sukarno’s political manifesto.
In 1966 General Soeharto launched a take over, signaling the start of a new political order which lasted for 32 years. Under the New Order, government control over the press became even stricter by using the Department of Information to exert control of the press and PWI; newspapers and all publications were closely monitored and controlled, crushing what little remains of the press freedom. During this time, PWI membership became mandatory to all journalists and only approved members can become editors or publishers. There were widespread corruption and unethical practices within the press community, such as the ‘telephone culture’, where editors of publications received a warning telephone call from the Department of Information if they published unflattering articles about the government or Soeharto’s family; and then there is also the ‘envelope culture’, which is basically monetary bribe given by government officials to journalists to publish or cover a story supporting the government. These two cultures have been a thorn within the press community because they impede the quality and integrity of journalists, however more often than not; the press community has to participate in order to survive, especially with the ‘envelope culture’ where the salary of a journalist can barely cover daily needs. Many journalistic organizations were disbanded by the government, until only PWI remains; and with its structure dominated by governmental people, PWI became the mouth piece for the government.
In June 1994, three major news publications, Detik, Tempo, and Editor, were permanently closed and their licences revoked by the Department of Information for publishing controversial articles which were critical towards the government. These closures provoke protests and demonstrations from various non-governmental organizations and from the society. Seeing the PWI as failing to stand up for the press community, a few weeks after the banning, a group of 85 journalists and intellectuals created a rival organization, AJI. This new organization, AJI, is fundamentally different from its government-controlled counterpart. Officially PWI serves as association of journalists, but many of its members are also members of political parties, mainly Soeharto’s political party Golkar, and acted as political agents against differing ideology such as communism. AJI is mainly a journalistic organization with no affiliation with any political ideology other than that of the freedom of the press. Since the government only recognize one official organization, AJI, operated illegally. The government and PWI continually put more pressure on AJI, arresting many of its members and threatening anyone or any publication that sympathizes with them, such as the case where PWI withdrew its support for the editor of D&R magazine for employing AJI members. Under heavy pressure, many AJI members were forced to resign from their jobs or transferred to distant position and location, and some were arrested for spreading anti-government views and distributing unlicensed publication. However some AJI journalists managed to continue to work and write using different name, and many of its members also found a loophole in the form of internet publishing.

Post New Order

After the collapse of the New Order regime, the political situation is much more hectic, with many differing political parties vying for power and influence. The Indonesian Press community, especially PWI, is also busy to adapt with the newly received freedom and to re-establish its image as an agent of change for the society instead of as an agent of stability for the government. In October 1998, PWI elected new executive and senior editors to try to separate itself from the New Order image. Different ideologies started to emerge and voicing their values through any media publications willing. Rules and regulations on media journalistic industry were reviewed, and AJI was officiated. Private tv channels are now more transparent, not controlled by Soeharto’s family anymore and media licensing to set up and publish newspaper, radio station and tv station is more public.
Because of these changes, though government is more lenient, it is now the community groups (religious group, ethnicity group etc) that have the voice. Self-censorship comes from these particular groups.


[Source: M. Emery, E. Emery, with N. L. Roberts, The Press and America: An Interpretive History of the Mass Media, 8th ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996)
[Source: M. Emery, E. Emery, with N. L. Roberts, The Press and America: An Interpretive History of the Mass Media, 8th ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996)] http://www.writesite.org/html/tracing.html http://censorship.wikidot.com/indonesian-journalism-censorship

Rabu, 28 Maret 2012

Identifikasi Wirausaha

Wirausaha Bakso Gepeng

Data Wirausaha :
  • Sudah ada lebih dari 80 cabang
  • Harga jual di Sopeng untuk Bakso Tahu  hanya sebesar Rp. 8.000,- Bakso Spesial Rp. 11.000,- kalau Mie Ayam bahkan dimulai dari harga Rp. 7.500,-
     
Ciri - ciri wirausaha :
  •  Usaha ini berbentuk franchise
  • Semua orang bisa membuka usaha ini namun tetap tertuju oleh satu pemilik usaha
  • Pemilik melakukan beberapa inofasi terhadap produk yang di jual
  • Setiap outlet mendapat bahan pokok dari satu sumber
Sumber :
http://baksogepengrawamangun.blogspot.com/

Kamis, 19 Januari 2012

Pemuda dan sosialisasi

A. Pengertian Pemuda
Telah kita ketahui bahwa pemuda atau generasi muda merupakan konsep-konsep yang selalu dikaitkan dengan masalah nilai. hal ini merupakan pengertian idiologis dan kultural daripada pengertian ini. Di dalam masyarakat pemuda merupakan satu identitas yang potensial sebagai penerus cita-cita perjuangan bangsa dan sumber insani bagi pembangunan bangsanya karma pemuda sebagai harapan bangsa dapat diartikan bahwa siapa yang menguasai pemuda akan menguasai masa depan.
Ada beberapa kedudukan pemuda dalam pertanggungjawabannya atas tatanan masyarakat, antara lain:
a. Kemurnian idealismenya
b. Keberanian dan Keterbukaanya dalam menyerap nilai-nilai dan gagasan-gagasan yang baru
c. Semangat pengabdiannya
d. Sepontanitas dan dinamikanya
e. Inovasi dan kreativitasnya
f. Keinginan untuk segera mewujudkan gagasan-gagasan baru
g. Keteguhan janjinya dan keinginan untuk menampilkan sikap dan keperibadiannya yang mandiri
h. Masih langkanya pengalaman-pengalaman yang dapat merelevansikan pendapat, sikap dan tindakanya dengan kenyataan yang ada.

B. Sosialisasi Pemuda
Sosialisasi adalah proses yang membantu individu melalui media pembelajaran dan penyesuaian diri, bagaimana bertindak dan berpikir agar ia dapat berperan dan berfungsi, baik sebagai individu maupun sebagai anggota masyarakat. Ada beberapa hal yang perlu kita ketahui dalam sosialisasi, antara lain: Proses Sosialisasi, Media Sosialisasi dan Tujuan Sosialisasi.
a) Proses sosialisasi
Istilah sosialisasi menunjuk pada semua factor dan proses yang membuat manusia menjadi selaras dalam hidup ditengah-tengah orang kain. Proses sosialisasilah yang membuat seseorang menjadi tahu bagaimana mesti ia bertingkah laku ditengah-tengah masyarakat dan lingkungan budayanya. Dari proses tersebut, seseorang akan terwarnai cara berpikir dan kebiasaan-kebiasaan hidupnya.
Semua warga negara mengalami proses sosialisasi tanpa kecuali dan kemampuan untuk hidup ditengah-tengah orang lain atau mengikuti norma yang berlaku dimasyarakat. Ini tidak datang begitu saja ketika seseorang dilahirkan, melainkan melalui proses sosialisasi.
b) Media Sosialisasi
• Orang tua dan keluarga
• Sekolah
• Masyarakat
• Teman bermain
• Media Massa.
c) Tujuan Pokok Sosialisasi
• Individu harus diberi ilmu pengetahuan (keterampilan) yang dibutuhkan bagi kehidupan kelak di masyarakat.
• Individu harus mampu berkomunikasi secara efektif dan mengenbangkankan kemampuannya.
• Pengendalian fungsi-fungsi organik yang dipelajari melalui latihan-latihan mawas diri yang tepat.
• Bertingkah laku secara selaras dengan norma atau tata nilai dan kepercayaan pokok ada pada lembaga atau kelompok khususnya dan pada masyarakat umum.

C. Internalisasi
Adalah proses norma-norma yang mencakup norma-norma kemasyarakatan yang tidak berhenti sampai institusional saja, akan tetapi mungkin norma-norma tersebut sudah mendarah daging dalam jiwa anggota-anggota masyarakat.
a. Pendekatan klasik tentang pemuda
Melihat bahwa muda merupakan masa perkembangan yang enak dan menarik. Kepemudaan merupakan suatu fase dalam pertumbuhan biologis seseorang yang bersifat seketika dan suatu waktu akan hilang dengan sendirinya, maka keanehan-keanehan yang menjadi ciri khas masa muda akan hilang sejalan dengan berubahnya usia.
Menurut pendekatan yang klasik ini, pemuda dianggap sebagai suatu kelompok yang mempunyai aspirasi sendiri yang bertentangan dengan aspirasi masyarakat. Selanjutnya munculah persoalan-persoalan frustasi dan kecemasan pemuda karena keinginan-keinginan mereka tidak sejalan dengan kenyataan. Dan timbulah konflik dalam berbagai bentuk proses. Di sinilah pemuda bergejolak untuk mencari identitas mereka.

b. Dalam hal ini hakikat kepemudaan ditinjau dari dua asumsi pokok.
Penghayatan mengenai proses perkembangan manusia bukan sebagai suatu koninum yang sambung menyambung tetapi fragmentaris, terpecah-pecah dan setiap pragmen mempunyai arti sendiri-sendiri.
Asumsi wawasan kehidupan adalah posisi pemuda dalam arah kehidupan sendiri. Perbedaan antar kelompok-kelompok yang ada, antar generasi tua dan pemuda, misalnya hanya terletak pada derajat ruang lingkup tanggung jawabnya.
Generasi tua sebagai angkatan-angkatan yang lalu (passing generation) yang berkewajiban membimbing generasi muda sebagai generasi penerus. Dan generasi pemuda yang penuh dinamika hidup berkewajiban mengisi akumulator generasi tua yang mulai melemah, disamping memetik buah-buah pengalamannya, yang telah terkumpul oleh pengalamannya.
Pihak generasi tua tidak bisa menuntut bahwa merekalah satu-satunya penyelamat masyarakat dan dunia. Dana melihat generasi muda sebagai perusak tatanan sosial yang sudah mapan, sebaliknya generasi muda juga tidak bisa melepaskan diri dari kewajiban untuk memelihara dunia. Dengan demikian maka adanya penilaian yang baku (fixed standard) yang melihat generasi tua adalah sebagai ahli waris. Dari segala ukuran dan nilai dalam masyarakat, karena itu para pemuda menghakimi karena cenderung menyeleweng dari ukuran dan nilai tersebut karena tidak bisa diterima. Bertolak dari suatu kenyataan, bahwa bukan saja pemuda tapi generasi tua pun harus sensitif terhadap dinamika lingkungan dengan ukuran standard yang baik.
Dengan pendapat di atas jelas kiranya bahwa pendekatan ekosferis mengenai pemuda, bahwa segala jenis ”kelainan” yang hingga kini seolah-olah menjadi hak paten pemuda akan lebih dimengerti sebagai suatu keresahan dari masyarakat sendiri sebagai keseluruhan. Secara spesifiknya lagi, gejolak hidup pemuda dewasa ini adalah respon terhadap lingkungan yang kini berubah dengan cepat.

D. Pemuda Dan Identitas
Telah kita ketahui bahwa pemuda atau generasi muda merupakan konsep-konsep yang selalu dikaitkan dengan masalah dan merupakan beban modal bagi para pemuda. Tetapi di lain pihak pemuda juga menghadapi pesoalan seperti kenakalan remaja, ketidakpatuhan kepada orang tua, frustasi, kecanduan narkotika, masa depan suram. Semuanya itu akibat adanya jurang antara keinginan dalam harapan dengan kenyataan yang mereka hadapi.
Kaum muda dalam setiap masyarakat dianggap sedang mengalami apa yang dinamakan ”moratorium”. Moratorium adalah masa persiapan yang diadakan masyarakat untuk memungkinkan pemuda-pemuda dalam waktu tertentu mengalami perubahan.
Menurut pola dasar pembinaan dan pengembangan generasi muda bahwa generasi muda dapat dilihat dari berbagai aspek sosial, yakni:
1. Sosial psikologi
2. sosial budaya
3. sosial ekonomi
4. sosial politik

 Masalah-masalah yang menyangkut generasi muda dewasa ini adalah:
a. Dirasakan menurunnya jiwa nasionalisme, idealisme dan patriotisme di kalangan generasi muda
b. Kekurangpastian yang dialami oleh generasi muda terhadap masa depannya
c. Belum seimbangnya jumlah generasi muda dengan fasilitas pendidikan yang tersedia
d. Kurangnya lapangan dan kesempatan kerja.
e. Kurangnya gizi yang dapat menghambat pertumbuhan badan dan perkembangan kecerdasan
f. Masih banyaknya perkawinan-perkawinan di bawah umur
g. Adanya generasi muda yang menderita fisik dan mental
h. Pergaulan bebas
i. Meningkatnya kenakalan remaja, penyalahagunaan narkotika
j. Belum adanya peraturan perundang-undangan yang mengangkut generasi muda.
 Peran pemuda dalam masyarakat
a. Peranan pemuda yang didasarkan atas usaha pemuda untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungan.
b. Peranan pemuda yang menolak unsur menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungannya
c. Asas edukatif
d. Asas persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa
e. Asas swakarsa
f. Asas keselarasan dan terpadu
g. Asas pendayagunaan dan fungsionaliasi
 Arah Pembinaan Dan Pengembangan Generasi Muda
Arah pembinaan dan pengembangan generasi muda ditunjukan pada pembangunan yang memiliki keselarasn dan keutuhan antara ketiga sumbu orientasi hidupnya yakni.
a. Orientasi ke atas kepada Tuhan Yang Masa Esa.
b. Orientasi dalam dirinya sendiri
c. Orientasi ke luar hidup di lingkungan
Peranan mahasiswa dalam masyarakat
a. Agen of change
b. Agen of development
c. Agen of modernization


http://www.anakciremai.com/2009/10/makalah-sosiologi-tentang-pemuda-dan.html

Rabu, 04 Januari 2012

Kemiskinan

Kemiskinan adalah keadaan dimana terjadi ketidakmampuan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dasar seperti makanan , pakaian , tempat berlindung, pendidikan, dan kesehatan. Kemiskinan dapat disebabkan oleh kelangkaan alat pemenuh kebutuhan dasar, ataupun sulitnya akses terhadap pendidikan dan pekerjaan. Kemiskinan merupakan masalah global. Sebagian orang memahami istilah ini secara subyektif dan komparatif, sementara yang lainnya melihatnya dari segi moral dan evaluatif, dan yang lainnya lagi memahaminya dari sudut ilmiah yang telah mapan.
Kemiskinan dipahami dalam berbagai cara. Pemahaman utamanya mencakup:
  • Gambaran kekurangan materi, yang biasanya mencakup kebutuhan pangan sehari-hari, sandang, perumahan, dan pelayanan kesehatan. Kemiskinan dalam arti ini dipahami sebagai situasi kelangkaan barang-barang dan pelayanan dasar.
  • Gambaran tentang kebutuhan sosial, termasuk keterkucilan sosial, ketergantungan, dan ketidakmampuan untuk berpartisipasi dalam masyarakat. Hal ini termasuk pendidikan dan informasi. Keterkucilan sosial biasanya dibedakan dari kemiskinan, karena hal ini mencakup masalah-masalah politik dan moral, dan tidak dibatasi pada bidang ekonomi.
  • Gambaran tentang kurangnya penghasilan dan kekayaan yang memadai. Makna "memadai" di sini sangat berbeda-beda melintasi bagian-bagian politik dan ekonomi di seluruh dunia.

Penyebab kemiskinan

Kemiskinan banyak dihubungkan dengan:
  • penyebab individual, atau patologis, yang melihat kemiskinan sebagai akibat dari perilaku, pilihan, atau kemampuan dari si miskin;
  • penyebab keluarga, yang menghubungkan kemiskinan dengan pendidikan keluarga;
  • penyebab sub-budaya (subcultural), yang menghubungkan kemiskinan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari, dipelajari atau dijalankan dalam lingkungan sekitar;
  • penyebab agensi, yang melihat kemiskinan sebagai akibat dari aksi orang lain, termasuk perang, pemerintah, dan ekonomi;
  • penyebab struktural, yang memberikan alasan bahwa kemiskinan merupakan hasil dari struktur sosial.
Meskipun diterima luas bahwa kemiskinan dan pengangguran adalah sebagai akibat dari kemalasan, namun di Amerika Serikat (negara terkaya per kapita di dunia) misalnya memiliki jutaan masyarakat yang diistilahkan sebagai pekerja miskin; yaitu, orang yang tidak sejahtera atau rencana bantuan publik, namun masih gagal melewati atas garis kemiskinan.

Menghilangkan kemiskinan

Tanggapan utama terhadap kemiskinan adalah:
  • Bantuan kemiskinan, atau membantu secara langsung kepada orang miskin. Ini telah menjadi bagian pendekatan dari masyarakat Eropa sejak zaman pertengahan.
  • Bantuan terhadap keadaan individu. Banyak macam kebijakan yang dijalankan untuk mengubah situasi orang miskin berdasarkan perorangan, termasuk hukuman, pendidikan, kerja sosial, pencarian kerja, dan lain-lain.
  • Persiapan bagi yang lemah. Daripada memberikan bantuan secara langsung kepada orang miskin, banyak negara sejahtera menyediakan bantuan untuk orang yang dikategorikan sebagai orang yang lebih mungkin miskin, seperti orang tua atau orang dengan ketidakmampuan, atau keadaan yang membuat orang miskin, seperti kebutuhan akan perawatan kesehatan.
Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemiskinan

Perbedaan antara masyarakat desa dan kota

Perbedaan masyarakat pedesaan dan masyarakat perkotaan, pada hakekatnya bersifat gradual. Kita dapat membedakan antara masya-rakat desa dan masyarakat kota yang masing-masing punya karakteristik tersendiri. Masing-masing punya sistem yang mandiri, dengan fungsi-fungsi sosial, struktur serta proses-proses sosial yang sangat berbeda, bahkan kadang-kadang dikatakan “berlawanan” pula. Perbedaan ciri antara kedua sistem tersebut dapat diungkapkan secara singkat sebagai berikut: Masyarakat Pedesaan
Perilaku homogen; Perilaku yang dilandasi oleh konsep kekeluargaan dan kebersamaan; Perilaku yang berorientasi pada tradisi dan status; Isolasi sosial, sehingga static; Kesatuan dan keutuhan kultural;  Banyak ritual dan nilai-nilai sakral; dan Kolektivisme.
Masyarakat Kota
Perilaku heterogen; Perilaku yang dilandasi oleh konsep pengandalan diri dan kelembagaan;                                                 Perilaku yang berorientasi pada rasionalitas dan fungsi; Mobilitas sosial, sehingga dinamik; Kebauran dan diversifikasi kultural; Birokrasi fungsional dan nilai-nilai secular; dan  Individualisme.
Warga suatu masyarakat pedesaan mempunyai hubungan yang lebih erat dan lebih mendalam ketimbang hubungan mereka dengan warga masyarakat pedesaan lainnya. Sistem kekerabatan dan kelompok kekerabatan masih memegang peranan penting. Penduduk masyarakat pedesaan pada umumnya hidup dari pertanian, walaupun terlihat adanya tukang kayu, tukang genteng dan bata, tukang membuat gula, akan tetapi inti pekerjaan penduduk adalah pertanian. Pekerjaan-pekerjaan di samping pertanian, hanya merupakan pekerjaan sambilan saja
Ada beberapa ciri yang dapat dipergunakan  sebagai petunjuk untuk membedakan antara desa dan kota. Dengan melihat perbedaan perbedaan yang ada mudah mudahan akan dapat mengurangi kesulitan dalam menentukan apakah suatu masyarakat dapat disebut sebagi masyarakat pedeasaan atau masyarakat perkotaan. Ciri ciri tersebut antara lain :
1) jumlah dan kepadatan penduduk

2) lingkungan hidup

3) mata pencaharian

4) corak kehidupan social

5) stratifiksi social

6) mobilitas social

7) pola interaksi social

8) solidaritas social

9) kedudukan dalam hierarki sistem administrasi nasional

Sumber : http://41215c4l177.wordpress.com/2009/11/19/perbedaan-antara-masyarakat-desa-dan-masyarakat-kota/